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Zarathushthranism
Ideology and theology of Zarathushtrianism
Ahura Mazda
Prof.Farhang Mehr
Zarathushtra's perception of God is infinitude in time and space (Y31.8), constructiveness and beneficence in immanence (Y51.6, Y47.3, 6), wisdom and truth in essence (Y28.2, 3, 4, Y51.7). God appears to man only in his attributes and Zarathushtra defines the ineffable God in ethical terms.
According to the Gathas, He is Wisdom, Righteousness-cum-Justice, Serenity-with-love, Divine Might, Perfection and Eternity. He is the Light of Lights, and all goodness emanates from Him. His attributes are etherealized moral concepts expressed in pure abstractions. They are but aspects of Ahura Mazda, though attempts have been made to personify them as archangels.
Glimpses of these attributes dwell within each and every human being, and through them, man as the co-worker of God can interact with God if he so chooses. It is only through these attributes that finite man can comprehend and describe the otherwise inexplicable and infinite Ahura Mazda.
Goodness, constructiveness, and justice (truth) are central to Zarathushtra's concept of Ahura Mazda.
The term Ahura Mazda signifies the Lord of both celestial and terrestrial worlds. Ahura means "life" and Mazda means "wisdom. Ahura Mazda is the Essence and Lord of Life and Wisdom.
Wisdom and truth are the constant threads running through the Gathas.
The Six cardinal epithets of Ahura Mazda, known collectively as Amesha Spenta, are the quintessence of Ahura Mazda. Each of them in its sublime universality represents Ahura Mazda but none is Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda is each and all of them -- the concept of plurality in oneness. (Y28.3, Y31.7). The following constitute the six epithets.
Vahishta Mana.
Vahishta Mana is the sublime universal mind. It is the essence of good and holy wisdom. Zarathushtra perceived Ahura Mazda in his wisdom (Y32.8), and instructed the people to choose between different ideas with the counsel of good mind (Y30.2). Vahishta Mana signifies the omniscience of God, and is the first in the hierarchy of attributes.
Asha Vahishta.
Asha Vahishta is the sublime universal truth-cum-justice. Righteousness, truth and justice are identical and interchangeable. Asha represents the eternal law that governs the Universe. The natural and divine law coincide in Asha. Asha also represents Ahura Mazda's will. It stands second in the hierarchy of attributes and was created in Ahura Mazda's good mind.
The two attributes of Vohu Mana and Asha often appear together in association with Ahura Mazda. Duchesne-Guillemin calls them the Holy Triad. The process of Zarathushtra's elevation to prophethood reflects the joint functioning of the three.
Khshatra Vayria.
No English word can explain it fully and precisely. Khshatra connotes a combination of holy, good and constructive potentialities; it signifies divine hegemony, power, and influence. Khshatra epitomizes the true Might that fosters love and eliminates hatred; promotes harmony and thwarts strife; induces humility and suppresses conceitedness; spreads justice and excludes revenge.
Spenta Armaity.
Spenta Armaity embodies love and serenity. It indicates the inherent attitude of benevolence and vouchsafeness, the loftiest dedication and selfless service. It connotes giving without expectation, and dutifulness without contemplation of reward.
Hurvatat.
Hurvatat purports perfection -- a state of all-round excellence and the absence of desire.
Ameretat.
Ameretat means immortality. It implies eternity, immutability, and being without a beginning and an end.
Life in its widest connotation is in Ahura Mazda, who is not begotten, nor is perishable. The universe exists and life is sustained through Him. Ameretat is free from time and space. Hurvatat and Ameretat are often together and that connotes the proximity of the two.
Though not included in the six, Spenta Mainyu constitutes another cardinal attribute of God. It is the sublime constructive power, the universal force of creativity, the essence of goodness (Y33.1) and the apex of positivity. Spenta means growth, augmentation and progress. It symbolizes God's productivity. It is the self-realizing quality or activity of Ahura Mazda, Dhalla, Zoroastrianism. It is the self-generating energy that leads to the creation and evolution of the universe. Spenta Mainyu is dynamic, and creation is an ongoing process. As Zaehner has said, for Zarathushtra, holiness meant also abundance, growth and health. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism.
Ahura Mazda is the creator. The Gathic words conveying that idea, are Datar and Tashea. The first word (from the root Da) means giver and bestower (Y43.5, Y46.9). In this sense, all blessings are given by God and all that is good emanates from him. The second word (from the root Tash meaning cut and shape) means shaper, designer and maker (Y44.5). In this sense all creations are designed and made by God. Hence, creation implies a combination of giving and shaping, emanating and designing, shaping and augmenting. Creation was not ex nihilo -- out of nothingness. Creation has always been in God and with God.
According to the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is the Absolute, the All-perfect, the Spirit of Spirits, the Essence of Being, the First cause, the creator (Y44.3), the sustainer (Y44.5), the source of goodness, the sublime Wisdom, the nature of Truth, the quintessence of justice, the constructive power, the Eternal laws, the unchangeable, the Ultimate Reality, and the only Adorable one to be worshipped. Ahura Mazda is transcendent, immanent, and a-personal. In his transcendence, he is infinitely great and beyond all creations. He is independent of Cosmos, but the Cosmos depends on him. He has no spatial location. Revelation, prophethood, and intuition relate to the transcendence of Ahura Mazda.
In his immanence, he manifests himself in the entire creation. He is present everywhere in the cosmos: in the grains of sands, in the seeds of plants, in the being of animals, and in the spirit of man. He is in and with, as well as out and beyond, all creations. He is beyond time and space, though time and space are with and in him. All creations exist in the presence of God.
Cosmos does not veil God, nor is it His body; yet cosmos has a soul (Y29.1). It is an expression of God's creativity. In his a-personality, he is not a person, but has a personal relationship with man. He is abstract yet real; he is a pure monad and devoid of anthropomorphic traits. Anthropomorphic ideas are rarer in the Gathas than in all other scriptures, says George Carter Zoroastrianism and Judaism, (1970). The few references to God's all-seeing eyes and reward-distributing hands should be taken as metaphors. God has no shape or form; he is the essence of consciousness without a conscious self.
The dignity, spirituality and privity of Ahura Mazda, presented by Asho Zarathushtra was an innovation in the ancient world. It was a new concept introduced in a new faith. Zarathushtra presented God as moral perfection, to be loved and not feared. Ahura Mazda is a just and not a revengeful God. He is the author of everything good and all good things. Destruction does not emanate from Him. This does not imply the existence of a primordial destroyer. Good and evil in Zarathushtrian tradition represent a moral and not a cosmic dualism. Nothing can detract from the monotheistic character of Zarathushtrianism; nothing can disparage the profundity of moral dualism in that faith.
To conclude, the Zarathushtrian faith believes in one creator-sustainer of the universe who is omniscient, omnipresent and omnipotent; he has no beginning, no end, and is unchanging and eternal; he is the only one worthy of worship; he created the universe in his good mind (Vahishta Mana), shaped it in his conscience (Daena), manifested it through his benevolent spirit (Spenta Mainyu), and set it into motion by his will (Asha) -- the eternal law of justice and righteousness.
Ahura Mazda created man as his co-worker with faculties to discern between right and wrong, and to work for the advancement of the universe. Ahura Mazda revealed his eternal law to the prophet Zarathushtra in the Gathas; he proclaimed the law of consequences and the reality of life hereafter, and he prescribed true happiness (Ushta) for the righteous.
The followers of the Gathas should pray through the righteous thought, deed, words of Asha, the good wisdom of Vohu Mana, and the love and serenity of Armaity, that the benevolent spirit of Ahura Mazda may grant them the perfect bliss of Hurvatat and the divine power of Khshatra to bring solace to the soul of the universe and to immortalize themselves.
Prof.Farhang Mehr
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Asha
God's Ahura Mazda's Will (God's Will)
Prof. Farhang Mehr
Boston University
Asha denotes righteousness, justice, and the divine/natural law that governs the universe. It entails progress toward self-realization and perfection (Hurvatat).
Asha is a sublime attribute of Ahura Mazda, next to Vohu Mana in hierarchy. Ahura Mazda, Vohu Mana and Asha are the Divine Triad.
Ahura Mazda conceived the universe in his mind (Vohu Mana), fashioned it in his conscience (Daena), manifested it through his creativity (Spenta Mainyo) and set it in motion in accordance with His Eternal Law (Asha). God is Asha and Asha represents God's Will. The Gathas declare that Asha is of one will with Ahura Mazda (Y28.8).
The existence of an eternal law and order is deeply rooted in Indo-Iranian culture. In old Persian inscriptions it is called Arta. Its Vedic equivalent is Rta. Ahura Mazda entrusted his worthiest co-worker, Zarathushtra, with the eternal law of Asha and missioned him to pass it on to mankind. Even before revelation, Zarathushtra was acting according to Asha (Y29.8) so he can be considered the embodiment of Asha in this world.
I. As righteousness, Asha constitutes the yardstick for determining right and wrong (Y30.7, 31.5). It sets normative ethics. It provides the standards that apply to all people at all times. It represents absolute values. Relativism is contrary to the Gathic morality. The questions of egoism and utilitarianism entertained in moral philosophy do not arise in Zoroastrianism. The assumption is that right deeds produce benefits alike for the author of the action and for society. The accruance of benefits to the author of the act is automatic.
Zoroastrianism believes in a universal morality. Rightness of deeds are grounded both in good mind (Vohu Mana) and in truth-cum-justice (Asha). Righteous deeds should be performed selflessly and with Love (Armaity); for rightness of acts, mind and heart operate in unison.
"Such are, indeed, the Saviours of the Earth.
They follow Duty's call, the call of Love;
Mazda, they listen unto Vohu Mana;
They do what Asha bids, and Thy commands;
Surely, they are the Vanquishers of Hate."
(Gathas, Yasna 48.12, Taraporewala translation).
Thus in Zoroastrian metaethics, rightness and wrongness are determined by Vohu Mana and Asha as the yardsticks. To simplify the matter, Zarathushtra has formulated the often-quoted maxim: Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds. This maxim describes the principle of Asha in action.
II. As Justice, the law of Asha ensures that happy consequences accrue to good acts (Y44.19, 51.15, 53.6). An individual reaps what he or she sows. Everybody receives his or her Mizhdem. Mizhdem means accrued consequences. Reward and punishment, although freely used in translations of the Gathas and in common parlance, are not appropriate substitutes for Mizhdem. Ahura Mazda stands beyond revenge and punishment. He is, exclusively, goodness. Mizhda or consequences denote the accrued fruitions of one's acts, earned by performances (Y51.13): the best existence for the righteous and the worst for the wicked.
Asha also guarantees the final victory of righteousness over falsehood that evokes God's omnipotence.
Righteousness is the best of all that is good and is the radiant goal of life on earth. One must live righteously, and for the sake of righteousness alone. Worldly rewards should not be the motivation. Duty for the sake of duty constitutes selfless service.
The realization process of good's triumph over evil is gradual and not abrupt. A dutiful human being, as a co-worker of God, should spread righteousness and eradicate falsehood for the advancement of the world and the progress of man towards perfection.
In Zoroastrian tradition, truth is justice, and justice is in Asha.
III. As divine/natural law, Asha connotes the eternal, immutable law that governs the universe. It regulates both the spiritual and the corporal worlds. In Zoroastrianism, natural law and divine law are the same.
The law of Asha is as changeless as God himself; yet it regulates change in the world and determines world dynamism. It organizes the gradual refreshment/renovation (Fresho Kereti) of the world.
Asha represents the causative law -- the relation between an individual's actions and their Mizhda. In Zoroastrianism, it is one's actions that determine the direction of one's life and one's fortune. An individual is free to choose his or her course of action and set Mizhda in motion. Thus, the consequences of each action are pre-determined but the choice of action for man is not. Thus the fate of man is not pre-ordained. Once the choice is made, the direction of life is set. The consequences of an individual's acts -- thoughts, words and deeds -- will follow in accordance with the law of Asha. This is God's will and God's justice.
Nothing can change the operation of the law of Asha. No mediation is possible. Nobody, not even the prophet, can intervene or mediate. (This is a point of difference with Abrahamic religions). Each action generates its consequence. There can be no addition or subtraction of the consequences. Repentance cannot alter the course of justice either.
There are three main features of Asha. Although the Gathas state only the principle, the later Avesta defines in detail the character of certain types of behavior. Certain norms of conduct are highly recommended, and some acts are strictly forbidden. Wrath (aeshma), violence (r ma), falsehood (drauga), lie (druj), are evil acts. Honesty (Arsh Manangha), fulfillment of promises (mitra), compassion (merezehdika) and charity (rata) are acts of piety.
Conceptualization of the moral norms set out in the Gathas help to provide a better understanding of the ethical contents of the law of Asha.
1. Liberty: Man's liberty is the most precious of God's bounties. It is the natural right of every human being. Man's liberty is so sacrosanct that God himself does not curtail man's freedom even with regard to man's choice of religion.
"Hearken with your ears to these best counsels:
Gaze at the beams of fire and contemplate with your best judgment.
Let each person choose his creed, with that freedom of choice which each must have at great events:
O ye, awake to these my announcements!"
(Gathas, Yasna 30.2, Dinshaw Irani translation.).
Few prophets have invited their audiences to weigh the tenets of the faith with reason and good mind.
The right of liberty is also reflected in the Zoroastrian concept of the God-man relationship. Unlike Islam, in which man is the abd (slave) of God, and unlike Christianity in which man is God's child, in Zoroastrianism man is God's co-worker. Hence, neither the owner's right, nor paternal authority can constrain man's freedom of choice. The restraining forces are an individual's moral convictions/conscience (Daena), and good mind (Vohu Mana).
2. Equality. The equality of males and females is unreservedly admitted. In all his sermons, Zarathushtra addresses man (na) and woman (nairi) separately and on equal footing. In a sermon addressed to his daughter Pouru-chista, Zarathushtra teaches young men and women to consult with their inner selves, with wisdom and love (armaity) before entering the uniting bond of marriage. No discrimination is allowed. Human beings, irrespective of sex, race or color are equal. Superiority of individuals to each other relates to their righteousness. That is the only test for distinction.
3. Human Rights. In the words of Professor Hinnells:
"Zoroastrianism is the first religion that has taken a doctrinal and political stand on the subject of human rights and has condemned limitations or curtailment of those rights under any pretext."
Hinnells, Theory and Practice of Human Rights in Zoroastrianism (presented at the Fourth World Zoroastrian Congress, Bombay, 1985).
Although the term "human rights" is of modern legal coinage, the concept of human rights as a system of values and ideas is engrained in Zoroastrianism. The Gathas condemn tyrannical and unjust rule and recommend to the faithful not to submit to oppressive rulers.
Body (tanu) and soul (urvan) are inviolable, and their integrity should be respected. Physical and mental assaults are repugnant acts. Nothing should be done in contravention of this law.
"In full accord with law shall all men act,
The law that forms the basis of all life,
With strictest justice shall the Ratu judge,
Whether it be the true man or the false;
Against the false in him he shall with care
Weigh all the truth that with it has been misled."
(Gathas, Yasna 33.1 Taraporewala translation).
The concept of slavery is alien to Zarathushtra's teachings, and no caste system or class privilege is recognized in the Gathas. The best evidence of this is provided by Zarathushtra's prayer for Kavi Gushtasp, wherein he hopes that some of the King's sons would go into agriculture, some into the military, and some work for the religion. The class privileges that existed in the time of the Sassanians were contrary to Zarathushtra's teachings.
4. Protection of the Environment, is an aspect of Asha. The later Avesta states that defilement of soil, water, air, and fire in any form or degree is considered a trespass on nature and a transgression of the law of Asha. This protective attitude originates in the Gathic treatment of life and the material world. Matter and life are benefactions from God and as such are adorable. This joy-producing world is being sustained by Ahura Mazda, and as His co-workers, human beings are beholden to act wisely and gratefully in preservation of the world. Zoroastrians acknowledge the importance of keeping nature free from pollution. The natural elements are essential for existence and progress. Human beings are acting as trustees for nature in this world. Anybody who acts in breach of this trust, encroaches upon the law of Asha and will encounter misery.
5. Active and constructive life. Idleness is a feature of evil. Divine wisdom, righteousness and moral courage pertain to active life. The prophet teaches his disciples to be active and constructive.
"O Wise Jamaspa Hvogva, I have taught
That action, not inaction, higher stands.
Obeying then His will, worship through deeds;
The Great Lord and Guardian of the Worlds,
Through His Eternal Law discriminates
Who are truly wise and who unwise."
(The Gathas, Yasna 46.17, Taraporewala translation).
Monasticism, celibacy, asceticism, and self-mortification have no place in Zoroastrianism. The function of Ahu is to preserve life and vitality, to give man an opportunity to enhance his or her moral apprehension. The aim of life is happiness -- ushta. Life is the battlefield between Good and Evil, and human beings should act as warriors of Good.
6. Progress and Modernity. Asha is the law of progress. It is an organic law and capable of accommodating modernity without any change in the essence of the law. The Gathic principles are general. For instance, it guides man to respect the environment. In disposing of the dead, Zoroastrians can use any method which is the least harmful to the environment, meeting the exigencies of time and place.
The Gathas teach man to be mindful of his or her physical and mental health. With acquired knowledge, advancements in health sciences and technology one must make decisions as to one's diet, and the type of meat or drink one consumes.
The Gathas recommend against submission to unjust and despotic rulers. With the experiences and the knowledge acquired by social scientists, a Zoroastrian should be able to decide on the best system of government. Asha is the law of progress and is consistent with modernity.
Zoroastrians in diaspora will succeed if they consult good thinking, Vohu Mana, and tread the path of Asha, as our ancestors did and our co-religionists are doing in Iran, India and Pakistan.
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Spenta Mainyu
Dr. Ali A. Jafarey
Enter Spenta Mainyu.
As long as the simple Zoroastrian believed in God, Hormazd, and his adversary the evil one, Ahriman, things went without spenta mainyu. The more learned said that it was an appellation of Hormazd. And long before them, in the good old days of the Vendidad, Ahura Mazda, the most spenta mainyu, had anghra mainyu as his opponent. According to the Zurvanites, who were perhaps as old as the Achaemenians in the 6th century BC, and as young as the authors of Bundahishn and Vichitakiha-i Zatsparam in the 9th century AD, good and evil were twins begotten by Zurvan Akarna, Boundless Time. So the simple Zoroastrian was, more or less, following tradition.
But with the advent of Zoroastrian studies, led and encouraged by western scholars, a change set in. Studies of the Gathas and the later Avesta revealed that spenta mainyu was referred to as an entity. And since then, almost all Zoroastrians and those who are well acquainted with the Zarathushtrian religion know the term spenta mainyu. Because the Gathas and the later Avesta were translated into English and other European languages mostly by Christian scholars who had the Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit in mind, the term has conventionally come to mean the Holy Spirit. The general notion about it is that it has an adversary, Anghra Mainyu, the evil spirit. The two are locked in a pitched life-and-death combat. The victory, of course, will go to the Holy Spirit.
Meaning?
Spenta is derived by many philologists from an Avestan/Sanskrit root spi/svi, meaning "to expand, swell, increase." Many, therefore, render it as "incremental." The Pahlavi rendering of afzunik, meaning "increasing," fully supports the translation. This is further strengthened by the later renderings mahattama (greatest), gurutama (most important), and particularly, vriddhi
(increasing) in Sanskrit, and afzuni in Persian. There are other scholars who prefer to derive it from spit/svit, to be bright, to be white, and connect it with holiness. The renderings by most of these scholars range between beneficent, bounteous, bountiful, incremental, holy and virtuous. Each scholar has reasons for his/her rendering. While scholars have reason to differ, the familiar and convenient "holy" has been taken for granted to be the meaning so much so that fundamental Iranians, in their drive to purge Persian of all Arabic words, have replaced moghaddas with sepanta! "Holy" is in vogue, both with scholars and the laity.
I accept the traditional meaning on philological and contextual grounds. I render it as "progressive, promoting, promoter." As we shall see, it reflects the Gathic spirit better. The Gathas emphatically advocate progress and advancement.
Mainyu is, as far as I know, derived by every scholar from man, meaning "to think, contemplate, meditate." Although many know that yu is an agentive and instrumental suffix, none has bothered to translate it as "an instrument, a way, a mode of thinking," and therefore "mind, mentality." A few instances in the Gathas show that mainyu and manah are interchangeable (Y33.6, Y34.2). Pahlavi and Persian do not help much because they have the same word as menok and minu except for a few times when menishn, thinking, has been used. But one can say that they did see its connection with "mind" and "mental." Sanskrit renderings of adrsyah, paralokih, even manasah (mental), and other synonyms point towards an "invisible, outer" entity. Whatever the earlier renderings, the scholars have taken the by-now-popular translation of "spirit" as quite suitable to their interpretation of a perpetual war between the so-called twin spirits. It suits them better. A departure may well topple the dramatic dualistic theory.
Many present Ahura Mazda as Spenta Mainyu and therefore elevate Anhra Mainyu to make him an adversary of the God of Good, and thus continue to write on the continuous fight between the two. As a result, Zoroastrians have been characterized by many as the people who believe in dualism.
As already pointed out, there was a time when the Zoroastrians believed in this dualistic "theology". The Vendidad tells us this and so do the writings written by and/or ascribed to the Sassanians and to those who followed them. New light on the Gathas and the later Avesta has changed views among intellectuals. But we see again a recession, because with the coming into prominence of a new class of Zoroastrian scholars with their academic roots in the dualistic scholarship of the later Avesta, the theory of the dualism of Ahura Mazda and His adversary is making a reappearance in certain quarters.
Gathic Picture.
The Gathas provide us with an entirely different picture: The term "spenta mainyu" has been used fifteen times in the Gathas (Y28.1, Y33.12, Y43.2, 3, 6, 16, Y44.7, Y45.6, Y47.1-6, Y51.7) and twice in Haptanhaiti, (Y36.1-2), a later text composed in the Gathic dialect by someone other than Zarathushtra. In these writings, there is no trace of any adversary of God, or any struggle, combat, battle, or war between the so-called good and evil forces at the divine level. The Gathas do not mention anhra mainyu at all. In other words, anhra mainyu does not exist as a compound word, a formalized term, in any of the texts in the Gathic dialect -- not in the five Gathas (composed by Zarathushtra), nor in Sarosh Hadokht (Y56), Fshusho Manthra (Y58), Fravarti (Y11.17 to Y13.3), and Yenghe Hataam! The dualism of "Good and Evil," highly dramatized in the later Avesta, is simply not related to the divine spenta mainyu. That dualism is a separate subject of human behavior on this earthly life and lies outside the scope of this article.
Subtle Faculty.
Let us know first where spenta, mainyu, spenta mainyu, and akin words occur in the Gathas.
| Spenta (alone) |
Y29.7, Y34.2, Y43.3-5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, Y44.2, Y45.11, Y46.9, Y47.3-4, Y48.3,7, Y51.16, 21. |
| Mainyu (alone) |
Y30.3-5, Y31.3, 7, 12, 21, Y33.9, Y44.2, Y45.2, Y53.7. |
| Spenta Mainyu |
Y43.6, Y44.7, Y45.6, Y47.1, 5, 6. |
| Spenishta Mainyu |
Y33.12, Y43.2, Y51.7. |
| Mainyu vohu |
Y34.2 |
| Mainyu spenta |
Y28.1. |
| Mainyu spenishta |
Y30.5, Y43.16. |
| Manyu |
Y28.11, Y31.9, Y32.9, Y44.11, Y45.8. |
| Manyu vahishta |
Y33.6 |
| Manyu spenishta |
Y47.2. |
The above instances concern God, man, both, and occasionally aramaiti (serenity). But, as already said, spenta mainyu is related directly or indirectly, to God. One thing is evident that while Ahura Mazda is the establisher/creator/parent of vohu manah (good mind), asha (righteousness), Khshathra (dominion), and aramaiti (serenity), and grants haurvatat (wholeness), and ameretat (immortality) to the person who truly observes these principles, spenta mainyu and atar (fire) belong to Ahura Mazda. They are so subtly abstract that they are not a separate entity to be established or created. They are two divine faculties, thinking and illuminating.
Should one take all these instances one by one and at the same time take into consideration the adjoining stanzas as well as the relative song, one would realize that the Gathas depict spenta mainyu as the subtle divine faculty of the continuous creation and expansion plan of Ahura Mazda. Zarathushtra, in his quest for truth, discovers that it is the "spenta mainyu" aspect of the Supreme Being that fashioned the joy-bringing world (Y47.3). Above all, it was through spenishta mainyu that God "created the wondrous wisdom of good mind by means of righteousness." (Y43.2 Jafarey translation). In fact the entire quest enlightens Zarathushtra to realize that God is not simply spenta but spenishta the most progressive (Y43.4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15). It made him realize his own self (Y43.7) and know that the purpose of his acquiring knowledge was in quest of righteousness.(Y43.9).
The progressive mentality plays a vital part in human progress. One may be "a person of very small means, a person of great strength" but if he is righteous, he has been promised the best. (Y47.4-5). God grants "good to both these parties through the progressive mentality by means of fire (enlightenment) because with the growth of serenity and righteousness, it shall convert many a seeker." (Y47.6, Jafarey translation). "He receives the best from the most progressive mentality who speaks words of good mind with his tongue and performs, with his own hands, deeds of serenity."(Y47.2 Jafarey translation). Wholeness and immortality are "the refreshing splendid goals achieved through the best mind." (Y33.8-9, Jafarey translation). "One whose soul is in accord with righteousness is a progressive man. (Y34.2). "The person who seeks the best life and prospers through righteousness is a great promoter and a treasure for all (Y44.2 Jafarey translation). "One knowing the divine teachings is progressive and wise like the Wise One. (Y48.3 Jafarey translation). A progressive person advocates putting down fury and checking violence, and wishes to strengthen the promotion of good mentality's actions. (Y48.7).
That is why Zarathushtra too "chooses for himself spenishta mainyu, the most progressive mentality of God, so that a new life is breathed into the physical body, serenity prevails throughout the divine dominion" (Y43.16), and wholeness and immortality are achieved (Y47.1). It is the progressive mentality that separates the two parties of mankind on earth -- the righteous who promote their world and the wrongful who retard their living (Y47.5). It is again the progressive mentality which "enlightens" the wrongful to seek truth and ultimately become righteous (Y47.6).
This enlightenment is called fire, symbol of light, warmth, and energy, by the Gathas (Y46.7) and Haptanhaiti (Y36.1,3) It is this light, warmth, this energy that Zarathushtra prays that every benevolent person will have. He sings:
"Moreover, may the best of blessings come to the person who gives blessings to others. Wise One, may his knowledge grow throughout the days of his long life of joy through Your most progressive mentality, the mentality through which You created the wondrous wisdom of good mind by means of righteousness."
(Y43.2, Jafarey translation).
Asho Zarathushtra wants every person to be godlike, choose spenta mainyu, the enlightening light, the invigorating warmth, and the vitalizing energy, rather the intuitive mind to be creative, a promoter, and progressive in our joy-bringing world. Spenta mainyu is, the Gathas tell us, the guiding inspiration, the enlightening intuition, the constructive promotion in our good lives. It is the divine spark in us. Let us maintain and brighten it more. Let us, like Asho Zarathushtra, choose for ourselves spenta mainyu to make our mission of propagating manthra (the thought-provoking message of the divine Manthran, Zarathushtra) prevail in the "sun-bathed" dominion of God! Let us join him in a meditative prayer from the Gathas:
"Wise Lord, rise within me, grant me courage through serenity, good gifts of prayers through the most progressive mentality, full vigor through righteousness, and felicity through good mind.
To support me, wide-watching Lord, reveal to me the force of Your sovereignty, the blessings of good mind. Show me through progressive serenity, righteous conceptions.
Now as a dedication, I Zarathushtra offer to the Wise One the very life-breath of myself and the first fruits of my good mind, deeds, and words, gained through righteousness, with my ear to the divine voice; in fact, my whole strength."
(Y33.12-14, Jafarey translation).
Dr.Ali Jaffery
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Good and Evil
Jehan Bagli
The concept of Good and Evil is far more complex and deep seated than the two four letter words can express. On a logical plane, it is reasonable to assume that mankind in its early stages of evolution must have construed all life sustaining forces and phenomena as "Good". In contrast, anything that endangered or threatened life must have been interpreted as "Evil."
On a different plane however, Good and Evil are philosophical notions that take on a physical expression by the extent of the morality of human behavior. Prophet Zarathushtra visualized these two opposite orders of existence in reality and anchored them as the moral basis of human life. He speaks of these in the Gathas as "Twin Mainyus." A point worthy of stress at this stage is the distinction between Ahura Mazda and the "Twin Mainyus." Prophet Zarathushtra, in his innovative wisdom, consistently stresses the existence of a single "uncreated force" Ahura Mazda. He recites tribute to that "Lord of Wisdom" in Ushtavaiti Gatha (Y44) as the sole creator -- the creator of light and the creator of darkness (Y44.5). He makes his unqualified pledge to serve him and eradicate evil through Good Thinking in another hymn (Y50.11), where he says:
"Yes, I shall swear to be your praiser, Wise One, and I shall be it, as long as I shall have strength and be able, o truth..."
(Y50.11, Insler translation).Insler translation).1
Let us now return to the discussion of the "Twin Mainyus". In his sermon to the adherents the prophet speaks of the concept of existence (Y30.3,4) as follows:
"In the beginning the two mental aspects which (are) twin (being emanations of the same mind) mutually disclosed themselves...one as the better and the other (as) the evil...when the two mental aspects (mentalities) came together at the very commencement (they generated both life and the absence of life.".2
In the above utterance, there are two important points on which we must focus: (a) that the two mainyus are twins, and (b) that they came together at the very commencement. These hymns, together with others, portray an image of existence where good and evil exist in a dynamic equilibrium, and the good must, in time, triumph over evil. The term "twin" has been interpreted by several scholars as the
"twin aspects of the human mind, and have no meaning apart from its workings and the moral choice of the individual."3
The term "together" (in Avesta hem) has generally been overlooked by the scholastic community. The Gathas appear to suggest that the two mental aspects, although distinctly opposite, performed as a coalition by natural combination to create, and yet remained distinct in their opposite nature (Y45.2).
Much of the corpus of the Gathas has the prescription for its adherent to follow the path of Good. The path that the creator has shown through the Benevolent Mentality -- Spenta Mainyu. The Hostile Mentality -- Angra Mainyu is not mentioned in the Gathas as such. The fact that these two mentalities have their genesis in the Creating "Force" -- Ahura Mazda is supported by the following quotation from Y47.3.
"Thou art the virtuous Father of this spirit, the spirit who fashioned the joy-bringing cow [metaphor for "the good vision, a view of the world governed by truth and good thinking 4] for this world..."(Insler translation). 5
The above view that the two mentalities are in dynamic equilibrium, having their genesis in Ahura Mazda and that only the "Good" and righteous must prevail is, in simplified terms, the Gathic concept. This view however, has undergone a profound change over centuries. As pointed out by Mr. Choksy,
"a gradual transformation of the Zoroastrian world view occurred from the dynamic asymmetry of Gathas to the rigid cosmic dualism first visible in Videvdat." 6
The aspect of Zoroastrian doctrine that postulates Ahura Mazda as the most righteous, perfect and good creator in all respects, precludes the genesis of Angra Mainyu from him. This paradox has led to two schools of thought among the scholastic community.
(a) The view of Derived Dualism, where Ahura Mazda is the supreme creator of all, and the two mainyus emanate from him. Rustom Masani, Framroze Bode, Zehner, Guillemin, Fox, Gershevitch and Pour-e-Davoud are among the Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian promoters of this view.
(b) In contrast, the other school of thought represents Primordial Dualism. This view promotes the notion that the two mainyus are primordial in nature and are responsible for two opposing creations. Among the supporters of this view are Mary Boyce, Henning, Shaked, Dastur Dhalla, and their colleagues. This viewpoint deviates from the Gathic concept in the following way: (1) it compels the equating of Spenta Mainyu with Ahura Mazda, (2) elevates the evil mentality -- Angra Mainyu to the highest level as "Uncreated Opponent" of Ahura Mazda, and (3) depicts the Creator less than omnipotent in the present -- Gumezisn -- era.
It is this view of "Primordial Dualism" that led the Greek historians of the fourth century BC to conclude that our faith supported the belief in two Gods -- the God of Good, Ahura Mazda and the God of Evil, Angra Mainyu. This is certainly not what the Gathas convey to us. Professor Gershevitch in his analysis of the concept tells us:
"...the fourth century philosophers thought that the essence of the Magian doctrine consisted in the opposition of Oromasdes [Ahura Mazda] and Areimanios [in Avesta Angra Mainyu, in Pahlavi Ahriman], it is clear that the Magi professed a dualist doctrine which differed considerably from that of the Avesta."77
Professor Douglas Fox, expressing his views on the subject, in his paper "Darkness and Light" says that
"It is probable that the Magi added a number of innovations to Zoroastrianism. None more significant than their clear-cut, rigid dualism in the concept of a deity. This they achieved by diminishing the individuality of Spenta Mainyu until he dissolved into Ahura Mazda and then setting Ahura Mazda in direct conflict with Angra Mainyu...."88
Regardless of the above discrepancy, the fact remains that the prophet Zarathushtra's religious vision of a perfect ideal creation of Ahura Mazda, has fallen far short in reality, to be achieved as a physical way of life. The contemporary world view of the way of life is grossly contaminated and polluted by the "Opposing Mentality" of evil and has to be cleansed of its way in time.
What do we note within the divine plan of Ahura Mazda to achieve this reformation? How can He restore this afflicted existence on this planet to its primal state of pristine perfection and help achieve Frasho Kereti -- Absolute Bliss?
This plan of effacing evil must include within it the supreme creation of Ahura Mazda -- Humanity. Zoroastrianism postulates that Ahura Mazda created humans to aid him in his struggle against Angra Mainyu as pointed out by Gershevitch:
"God ...stands outside the struggle which is waged between the forces of Truth and Falsehood. His only intervention consists in revealing to Zarathushtra the responsibility which rests with mankind: the support which each man lends to the side he has chosen will add permanent strength to it... therefore acts of man will weigh the scales in favor of the one side or the other."9
It is generally accepted that souls that incarnate the world in mixed state of good and evil (in Pahlavi,Gumezisn), are beset with the responsibility to take up the cudgel to terminate evil.
According to Bundahisn 10 human souls consented to enter the physical world to further the cause of Good. This is described in the scripture as follows:
"The fravahrs of men saw, by means of the Wisdom of all knowledge, the evil that would arrive in the material world on account of the wicked Ahriman, and the final inoffensiveness of the Adversary, and they agreed to go to the material world, in order to become perfect and deathless again, in the final material life, up to eternity and the eternal progress."11
Zarathushtra expresses this notion (Y31.11) when he speaks of the creation of the human body (in Avesta gaethaos), the conscience (in Avesta daenaos), the innate mental intelligence (in Avesta manangaha) and the vital life force (in Avesta ushtanem). A detailed account of this can be found in the Pahlavi Scripture 12 and in Yasna 55.1 (not a part of the Gathas).
From the information available to us from the scriptures, it can be inferred that the Creator has put together this mortal framework, interwoven with an erudite convergence of the forces of divinity and intelligence within it. To paraphrase the scriptures (Y45.9), the creator has assembled within this creation, the supreme attributes so as to give humans the maximum chance to make a "proper choice" and succeed (Y30.12) through good-thinking.
From a philosophical viewpoint, humans in every aspect are a synthesis: of finite and infinite, of temporal and eternal. Humans are the only creation of Ahura Mazda that have within them the potential of all the forces of creation and destruction that operate in the entire universe. Despite these gifts of the Creator, humans are often aware, neither of the possibilities of their greatness, nor the extent of their weaknesses.
Much of the corpus of the Gathas is directed towards humanity. In particular, many gathic verses instruct the adherents to find the path of righteousness (in Avesta asha) through the "excellent divine intelligence" (in Avesta vanghahevsha manangha). It is this prescription that pervades through the Gathas as the most fundamental principle that can lead to the "Proper Choice" and that will maintain harmony among humans and other elements and between human beings themselves.
After having established the concept of the coalition of the two opposite mentalities at the beginning of existence (Y30.3,4), the Gathas go on to explain the assimilation of this doctrine within the human creation. Prophet Zarathushtra, in his inborn wisdom was intensely perceptive of the reality. He addresses this issue when he speaks of the Good-thinking (ashaune) and evil-thinking (dregvatam) persons who put their minds on the respective paths of Good and Evil by making a choice of the appropriate mental aspects (Y30.4).
Yasna 31.11 pays tribute to the Wise Lord for the creation of humanity with freedom of expression and goes on in the next verse (Y31.12) to allude to the presence of two mainyus in the human mind. It further suggests that through devotion and piety, the revelation of ashoi (righteousness) will come to prevail over evil. Insler's translation of Y31.12 expresses this as follows:
"...one raises his voice in accord with both his heart and his mind, be he false-speaking or true-speaking, be he knowing or unknowing. (But) in due course piety shall come to terms with one's spirit where there has been opposition."13
Y45 reinforces the message of choice between the two mentalities by the human mind. It reiterates to humanity that perfection and immortality will come to those who follow the path of righteousness through good-thinking. That good is one of two choices which the human mind can make is once again evident in the later part of this Gatha:
"...Him who left to our will (to choose between) the virtuous and the unvirtuous...." (Y45.9 Insler translation 14 )
It is thus abundantly clear that the GENESIS of Good and Evil resides in close proximity with the CHOICE made by HUMANITY through the exercise of FREE WILL. To make the PERFECT CHOICE of its own FREE WILL is the plane of evolution that will be synchronous with the beginning of the Frashokereti (Y34.13), the resurrection of absolute perfection. Through this plan Ahura Mazda -- Lord of Wisdom -- will restore His people to Himself.
Dastur Jehan Bagli
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The Freedom to Choose
Yezdi Antia.
"We do not choose to be born. We do not choose our parents. We do not choose our historical epoch, or the country of our birth, or the immediate circumstances of our upbringing. We do not, most of us, choose to die, nor do we choose the time or conditions of our death, but within all this realm of choicelessness, we do choose how we shall live: courageously, or in cowardice, honorably or dishonorably, with purpose or adrift. We decide what is important and what is trivial in life. We decide that what makes us significant is either what we do or what we refuse to do. But no matter how indifferent the universe may be to our choices and decisions, these choices and decisions are ours to make. We decide. We choose. And as we decide and choose, so are our lives formed."
Joseph Epstein, Ambition the Secret Passion, page 298.
The choice that Zarathustra talks about is between the good and the evil, the truth and the lie.
Choice also involves thinking. And there are the consequences of choice. We shall therefore examine what Zarathustra has to say on all these topics when he
"expresses the same underlying idea through the technique of paraphrase or through other means of variation and amplification."
S Insler, The Gathas of Zarathushtra, page 21.
The Gathas have been translated variously by different scholars. Presumably there are still great difficulties in various passages. There are, however, large areas in the translations where there is agreement. All translations inspire you to achieve your best in the realm of Truth, Good Thinking, Service, Moral Courage, and the cultivation of the Inner Life. It is therefore more important to put into practice the message of the Gathas as perceived by the reader than to dwell upon the various interpretations that rightfully exercise a scholar's mind.
It is our misfortune that the sayings of our prophet have remained obscure for thousands of years, because the language changed soon after he passed away. Now that modern research has discovered the meaning of this treasure, it is even more unfortunate that the average Zoroastrian does not widely read them.
The main reason why the Gathas should be read is that in no other book are the fundamental principles of our religion so clearly laid down and so beautifully expressed. At the same time it helps us to evaluate some of the traditional beliefs we grew up with. For surely the thoughts of the founder should have precedence over the thought of any later tradition that grew up in the absence of the knowledge of the meaning of his words. A few examples will illustrate this point.
Is it morally right for us to believe that non-Zoroastrians cannot be formally admitted to our religion when Zarathushtra addressing God declares in Y44.10:
"About your religion which is the best for all human beings..." (Y44.10 Sethna translation).
One of our most valued prayers next to the Yatha Ahu Vairyo and Ashem Vohu is the Yenghe Hatam which says:
"We revere all men and women from amongst the living who promote the good because of their excellence in virtue and service to mankind."
Please note that the prayer asks us to revere all good men and women, not just Zoroastrians. The distinction is between the righteous and the non-righteous, not between Zoroastrians and non-Zoroastrians. How then do we reconcile this with our tradition of not letting non-Zoroastrians join us in our ceremonies? Are we really following the advice of this prayer when we prevent non-Zoroastrians from eating consecrated food or when we prevent a righteous non-Zoroastrian from even paying his last respects at the funeral of his dear Zoroastrian friend?
It is a traditional belief that prayer in itself is a religious act of the highest order and that reciting in the Avesta (by means of its superior "vibrations") can give the living and the dead the utmost benefit.
Compare this with what Zarathushtra says (emphasis added):
"...The Highest shall be reached by DEEDS alone."(Y51.1, Taraporewala translation).
"...for worship indeed choose ACTS of piety..."(Y53.2, Sethna translation).
"...May divine wisdom...bestow blessings for DEEDS inspired by good thoughts."(Y43.16 Sethna translation).
Clearly the emphasis is on good actions and therefore the most religious act that a man can perform is to deliberately choose (in spite of being assailed by temptation) to perform the right action. It is this act of free choice that is the supreme religious act.
Good thoughts are the source of good actions and the emphasis throughout the Gathas is on Good Thinking. It is in this realm of Good Thinking that prayer plays the most significant part. The main purpose of prayer, apart from asking for God's guidance and blessing, is to direct your mind to good thought and to inspire you to good deeds and therefore prayer is of the utmost importance not as a religious act but as an invaluable guide and help towards performing religious acts.
There is no doubt that prayers chanted with fervour do, with their soothing vibrations, bring one into a devotional mood. But this is true of all devotional prayers and songs in any language.
If the Avesta "vibrations" were the beneficial part of prayer it would relegate all other prayers in other languages to a secondary status. It is presumptuous for us to believe that a prayer in Avesta is more efficacious or more acceptable to God than that of any other of his children in any other language. Moreover, a belief in the magical effect of Avesta vibrations would also mean that Zarathushtra has put the wrong emphasis in his hymns when he says "For worship indeed choose ACTS of piety" or that "the Highest shall be reached by Deeds alone."
Let us then explore what our prophet has said on the topics of Choice, Good and Evil, and the Consequences that follow the choice of Good and Evil, and try to perceive and put into practice his message which according to Insler
"Is remarkably consistent in both outlook and expression." Insler, The Gathas of Zarathushtra, page 22.
I will for the main part let Zarathushtra's words speak for themselves. A few minutes of careful reading will show how effectively the prophet makes his points.
Choice and Free Will.
"Thou gavest to all that live the choice of Paths --Whether to leave the Shepherd's sheltered side, Or else to turn aside from Shepherds False."(Y31.9 Taraporewala translation).
"Since, O Mazda, from the beginning you fashioned for us physical bodies, discerning souls, and directive intelligence through your own mind. Since you infused life breath into mortal bones, since you granted capacities to act and true doctrines to guide so that one could choose beliefs at will." (Y31.11 T.R. Sethna translation).
"And indeed Mazda has laid down a choice for all, the teaching that righteousness shall prevail and falsehood shall be frustrated. I would therefore ask for union with good thoughts and renounce all association with the followers of falsehood."(Y49.3 T.R. Sethna translation).
"Hear the best (truth) with your ears and decide by your pure mind. Let everybody judge for his own self and find out what he ought to do. Before the great trial let all wake up to this my counsel." (Y30.2, T.R. Sethna translation).
In these four verses, Zarathushtra explains to us the moral principles created by God for mankind. There are two paths to follow but man has been given free will and the capacity to choose between them. Everybody has to make his choice on his own with a clear mind.
Good and Evil,
Evil Persons.
"I would now speak of the two ultimate principles of human mentality. One of them, the holier one, spoke to the evil one as follows: 'Neither our thoughts nor our doctrines, nor wills nor beliefs, nor words, nor deeds, neither our conscience nor souls agree.' " (Y45.2 T.R. Sethna translation).
"Now in the beginning these twin mentalities revealed themselves in thought, word, and deed, as the better and the bad; and from these two the wise chose aright but not so the unwise." (Y30.3 T.R. Sethna translation).
"Of these twin spirits he that is the false doth ever choose performing evil deeds, but righteousness doth choose the Holy One; He who would clothe himself in Light of Heaven, He who would satisfy Lord Ahura, Let him througn deeds of Truth choose Mazda's way."(Y30.5 I.J.S. Taraporewala translation).
"The False Teacher Mazda's word distorts and through his words distorts the scheme of life. He turns away from us our heritage -- the precious love that flows through Vohu Man."(Y32.9 I.J.S. Taraporewala translation).
"Such persons, in these ways defile our lives dazzled by worldly grandeur they regard the wicked as the great ones of the Earth; They hinder all fulfillment here below. O Mazda, from the highest Truth of Life they turn aside the minds of righteous men." (Y32.11 I.J.S. Taraporewala).
"They through their teaching try their very best that men may leave the honest path of work. But Mazda sends them retribution just;
with chants alluring they mislead all life."(Y32.12 I.J.S. Taraporewala translation).
There is more elaboration here of the two mentalities, the true and the false, the good and the evil. The two mentalities are totally opposed. Evil persons put their emphasis on the wrong values and regard the wicked as the great ones of the earth. With their alluring speech they mislead and distract the mind of man.
Where to get help in making your choice:
Divine wisdom helps:
"Therefore each lifts up his voice to proclaim his faith whether a liar or a truthful speaker, whether learned or unlearned according to his own heart and mind, but divine wisdom stands by to deliberate with the spirit of whoever is perplexed by doubt."(Y31.12 T.R. Sethna translation).
Zarathushra will guide:
"Since the better path is not clearly seen by the soul for her choice because of evil attractions I have come to you all as the prophet ordained by Ahura Mazda to guide the people between these two mentalities, so that they, one and all, live in harmony and righteousness.(Y31.2 T.R. Sethna translation).
Ask God for help:
"Therefore may we be those who shall heal this world! Wise One and ye other lords, be present to me with support and with truth, so that one shall become convinced even where his understanding shall be false."(Y30.9 Insler translation).
Help from the enlightened and from God:
"Which of the two paths does the follower of righteousness and the follower of falsehood choose as the better one? Let the enlightened one teach me who is willing to learn. Let not the ignorant lead men astray. O Ahura Mazda the revealer of the good... help us. (Y31.17 T.R. Sethna translation).
In these verses Zarathushtra says that God and his Divine Wisdom help to resolve the doubts of persons who are genuinely striving for the good. Zarathushtra himself can show the way when evil attractions cloud man's mind. How can Zarathushtra guide us in a practical sense? I believe he is referring here to the guidelines given by him in the two venerated prayers of the Yatha Ahu Vairyo and the Ashem Vohu.Yatha Ahu Vairyo in my perception promotes the following values:
Spiritual awareness. A recognition that spiritual goals must be pursued with material goals.
Spirit of Service and Selflessness.
Helping the needy. Needy here is used in a broad sense, e.g. person needing moral support.
The Ashem Vohu promotes the following values:
Truth and righteousness.
Altruism. All good actions to be done for the sake of goodness alone. If then a person is in doubt about the course to follow, he could apply the test by asking which of the choices promotes better the values mentioned above.
Consequences of Choice.
"And these are real facts, O ye men & women!
No happiness can be yours, if the lie-demon drives the chariot of your lives;
Cast off from your selves all evil bonds that may chain you to untruth;
Happiness linked with dishonour, happiness that harms others is poison for the seeker.
The evil-faithless who brings ruin to the righteous here, destroys for himself his spiritual life hereafter." (Y53.6 D.J. Irani translation).
"Whosoever is the follower of Truth, the light henceforth shall be his abode. The wicked for age long reside in darkness uttering words of woe. To such life they are condemned by their own selves through their own deeds. (Y31.20 T.R. Sethna translation).
"To those who are devoted to him in thought and deed, Ahura Mazda shall bestow self-realization and immortality with plenty of righteousness, moral courage and blessings of good thought." (Y31.21 T.R. Sethna translation).
"Through the most holy mentality (Spenta Mainyu) the best life will be for one who with his tongue speaks in accord with good thoughts and with his hands performs the tasks of divine wisdom inspired by the one idea that AhuraMazda alone is father (upholder) of righteousness." (Y47.2 T.R. Sethna translation).
"And through thy Holy Spirit Mazda Lord,
The righteous gaineth all that is the Best;
The false one will remain far from Thy Love;
From Evil Mind do all his acts proceed,
His evil deeds darken and cloud his soul." (Y47.5, I.J.S. Taraporewala translation).
"Then did I realize you as the Most Bountiful one, O Mazda Ahura, when I beheld you first at the birth of life. Since you have ordained that deeds and words shall bear fruit, evil comes to evil and good blessings to the good."(Y45.5 T.R. Sethna translation).
"Now I shall proclaim what the holiest one revealed to me which is best for the mortals to hear. He who gives reverence to his conscience shall attain self-realization and immortality through deeds of goods thoughts and grace of Ahura Mazda also."(Y45.5 T.R. Sethna translation).
Freedom of choice, therefore cannot be separated from the responsibility that comes with that freedom. You are thus the architect of your own future. Brick by brick, by your own daily actions you build the House of Songs or the House of Woe.
Let us conclude with a modern echo of what Zarathushtra said many centuries ago:
"I try to remember that we are given the freedom to choose to live ethically, or choose to live otherwise. Having this freedom to choose and exercising it with integrity and humility actually makes us strong. Every time you work out you meet with resistence. If the weights are too light to provide that resistance therefore easy for you to lift, you won't increase your strength. That's why the toughest ethical problems provide the biggest opportunities for growth."
Blanchard and Peale, The Power of Ethical Management, page 37.
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